Matthew V. Skelton

Music created for use with another artistic medium is not a new subject. Since primitive times, music has accompanied dances, rituals, ceremonies and plays because of music's ability to characterize certain settings and enhance the audience's emotional experience. This relationship between music and mood or emotional context has been observed for centuries, and has been validated scientifically in the medium of film music. Claudia Bullerjahn and Markus Guldenring recently conducted an investigation of the effects of film music using qualitative content analysis and found that "film music polarizes the emotional atmosphere and influenced the understanding of the plot," thus confirming by scientific means the existence of a psychological connection between music and emotion (99).

But before this relationship between music and emotion was empirically observed, filmmakers used music in connection with their films for several reasons, both practical and aesthetic. As Kurt London points out in Film Music, during the era of silent films, film music "began, not as a result of any artistic urge, but from the dire need to drown out the sound of the projector," but later, "Musical accompaniment was needed for the silent film, to bring out that intangible element which had, in the absence of speech and the noises of everyday life, to work on the mind and should through a combination of ear and eye" (27, 36).

The job of musically accompanying film took on various forms, shapes and sizes through the years, as the task was entrusted to a pianist, followed by live orchestras, and briefly, according to London, gramophone records (85). Eventually, technology allowed sound to be recorded to the same film that showed the picture, which effectively restandardized the presentation of film. Filmmakers then delivered the whole package. Up to then, the original composition of music for film existed, but was severely limited because of the "amateurism" of the local cinema orchestra (London 84). But in 1929 with the new standard of the sound-movie, the original composition of music for a specific film became standard procedure. About a decade later, composer Aaron Copland observed new ways that music and film interacted, listing them in his book What to Listen for in Music as:

1. Creating a more convincing atmosphere of space and time,
2. Underlining psychological refinements -- the unspoken thoughts of a character, or the unseen implications of a situation,
3. Serving as a kind of neutral background filler,
4. Building a sense of continuity, and
5. Underpinning the theatrical build-up of a scene, and rounding it off with a sense of finality (256-58).

Over the years through various prevailing processes of film production within the film industry, the process of composing original music for film has also undergone changes, but in recent years has conceptually been refined into a recognized, standard process. In 1990, Fred Karlin and Rayburn Wright, with the help of dozens of film composers, outlined a specific, chronological, nine-step process for the completion of a film score in their landmark text, On The Track (11). This outlined process, the influential parties, and other extra-musical constraints, create a set of parameters a composer must work within in order to create new music for a film. Yet in the midst of those parameters, composers rediscover and invent new forms of musical expression unique to the specific musical medium of film music.

In order to create the desired musical effect, the film composer, through years of experience has acquired specific compositional techniques, a "creative arsenal," that allows him or her to work within the parameters of the film scoring process, yet still create new music that enhances emotion in a supporting way. And like artists of other mediums, in order to keep getting work, film composers must stay current with creative trends within their medium, and in doing so, they often find in studying other composers that certain creative aspects (harmonic language, instrumentation, and orchestration for example) work well within the emotional and dramatic parameters of certain types of films. If this is the case, then it follows that certain aspects of composition should appear regularly across films of a certain genre or of similar type. This project examines the film scoring process in films that make use of altered space or time, analyzing the scores for compositional techniques and discussing the relative value of these techniques in the films in which they occur and across films of the same type.

For the sake of clarity, basic terminology, expressions and concepts from the world of film music should be explained so that concepts developed throughout the project are readily understandable to those unfamiliar with the process of scoring for film.

Screening is a term for the actual viewing process. Before any concepts can be formed, before any music can be composed, the composer must screen the film, making note of their instinctive, primary reactions to the film.

The smallest individual moment of music in a film is known as a cue. A cue can be relatively long or short, depending on the needs of the scene in a film. Each cue in a film has a calculated purpose determined by many people including but not limited to the composer, director, producer, editor, music editor and so forth. Additionally, these people decide when music will occur during a film and exactly when the music will enter and exit. These decisions to include music at certain places in a film are made for reasons. Often a cue will enhance the emotional content of a conversation or intensify the suspense of a chase, but regardless of the reason, successful musical is a scene in a film performs a specific function.

The process of deciding when music will occur in a film is called spotting. Prior to the actual composition of film music, the composer and other figures important in the process of film production will meet for a spotting session during which these parties will decide when and where music will occur in the film.

Important figures in film production should also be described for the sake of understanding the environment of extra-musical constraints film composers must work within. These figures include the producer, director, editor, executive producer, and in some cases the music editor and the music supervisor. Though not all of these figures may be involved in a production, the presence of all of these figures would in some cases represent the ideal creative team. And though many people famous for performing the of roles in the production of a film are non-musicians, any one of the figures may have reasons for steering the creative direction of film music during the spotting session or during the composer's actual production of the music. From the composer's perspective, basically, the situation at hand regarding which figures are involved and what their roles will be must be understood throughout the scoring process.

The person figure with the most authority in the end on virtually all films in production today is the producer. The simple fact of the matter is that the producer role is to provide the financial resources for the film's production. The general rule is that whoever pays has the last word. Generally speaking, it is the producer who hires the director and may or may not hire the composer or lead actors for a particular film.

The director is the figure ultimately responsible for all creative decisions in film. Often the relationship between the director and composer will cause the pair to work together on many films and projects. Examples of well-known, highly successful "director-composer" teams are Alfred Hitchcock-Bernard Hermann (North By Northwest, Vertigo, others), Steven Spielberg-John Williams (Schindler's List, Jurassic Park, E.T.: The Extra-Terrestrial, Close Encounters of the Third Kind, Jaws, others), Tim Burton-Danny Elfman (Pee-Wee's Big Adventure, Beetlejuice, Edward Scissorhands, Sleepy Hollow, others), and Robert Zemeckis-Alan Silvestri (Forrest Gump, Contact, Death Becomes Her, Back to the Future, others). This creative relationship between director and composer is usually established not just by mutual satisfaction with each party's ability to produce the final product, but also similar creative vision, compatible creative processes and similar levels of professionalism.

The editor (and in some cases the director) determines which scenes actually appear in the finished film, which camera angles and shots will make up the body of a scene, and also the actual length of each scene. The composer must work closely with the editor (and with the music editor on projects) in order to determine exact timings for cues.

The executive producer works on behalf of the producer to manage budgets and production timelines. Often budgetary issues will cause the composer to work very closely with the executive producer to iron out financial issues in order to keep the project moving forward.

Another key figure whose function is important but not central in the creative process is the orchestrator. Because of very tight production timelines, the composer will often hire the orchestrator to complete the time-consuming task of expanding the musical ideas into realizations for a full orchestra or other ensemble as dictated by the composer. The process of orchestration is also a very creative process depending on how specific the composer's instructions and notes are recorded on sketch scores. Scores that require very full orchestration and a large percentage of music throughout the whole picture may make use of a whole staff of orchestrators who will adapt the composers sketches.

Knowing now a general idea of the team of people most directly involved in the process of producing film music we can examine the whole process of composing a film score from start to finish. Fred Karlin and Rayburn Wright in On The Track give a working model of this process as follows:

1. Meeting filmmakers, reading script, screening the film
2. Spotting the film
3. Planning budgets and recording schedules
4. Conceptualizing
5. Working out timings/synchronization
6. Composing
7. Orchestrating
8. Recording
9. Dubbing (11).

When the composer reaches the "Conceptualizing" step in the scoring process, the composer must begin to make the must crucial musical decisions of all. During this process, the composer establishes the foundational element of any good score, the score concept. The score concept is "the primary idea that functions as a foundation upon which the score is built." (Karlin and Wright 81). The score concept often revolves around characters or ideas central to the film, and involves representing characters, places or ideas with music. Some scores make use of methods stemming from the19th century musical concept of "idee fixe" in which an idea is represented by a recurring motive or melody throughout a composition. Berlioz made use of this technique in Symphonie Fantastique. Similarly, scores make use of the compositional building block of a "leitmotif" where a recurring theme indicates a certain person, attribute or idea. Richard Wagner is famous for incorporating themes in such fashion to ascribe super-human attributes to characters in many of his works including Die Valkyrie and others. Other methods may be developed and will incorporate repeated usage of various combinations of melody, harmony, rhythm and instrumentation. Regardless of the material and the method used, a good working conceptual model makes a connection between characters and music and will lead the composer to formulate a musical style appropriate for the film they are scoring.

In many cases, before the composer formulates the score concept, the director already has an idea of the style of music for the film. In such cases the director may have filmed certain scenes with a particular music in mind. When communicating with the composer about the appropriate style of music for these scenes, the director will refer to existing music and that music is known as a role model. A role model could be one or several types of music including:

1. a specific film score or cue,
2. a specific style of film score,
3. a specific classical piece, or
4. a specific song (Karlin and Wright 33-34).

In some cases, the director, editor, or other influential party has gone so far as to pair the role model with a scene in order to experience the effectiveness of the music with the scene. When the pairing of film and role model has occurred, the music is then considered a temp track. According to Karlin and Wright:

From a composer's perspective, the worst case scenario is that the filmmaker will end up using a temp track in the final version of the film as was the case in the well-known example of Stanley Kubrick's 2001: A Space Odyssey. For this film, a composer was hired to score the picture, but Kubrick wished to include scenes accompanied by Richard Strauss' symphonic poem Also Sprach Zarathustra and Johann Strauss' famous waltz The Blue Danube. The final results of these pieces in the film were spectacular and ultimately appropriate for the film, but from the perspective of the composer and those involved in the scoring process, it most likely was disconcerting to see the final version of the film having invested so much time and money preparing and recording other music in vain. But such cases are extremely rare and role models and temp tracks have become vital elements of communication between the director and composer. As such, these devices become extremely important and influential in the scoring of a picture.

In some cases, all musical elements of film are not always left to the discretion of the composer. Additional musical parties include the music editor and the music supervisor. The music editor often deals with sources of music in film other than the music written specifically to underscore the film. When music emanates from a particular source in a film such as a radio or live players, the music heard is called source music. Karlin and Wright define source music as "music that the people on the screen can hear, while underscoring is the music that they can't hear but we in the audience can." (510). Karlin and Wright divide source music into three types, saying:

Karlin and Wright also classify the interaction between source music and score into five different categories, all of which require deft craftsmanship of the composer and music editor:

1. source music function as score,
2. source music changing into score,
3. source music cross-fading into score,
4. source music and score used simultaneously,
5. source music playing an underscoring theme (511-12).

Dealing with source music can be very challenging for a composer. Scenes involving source music must be handled delicately, especially when the composer is asked to create music that interacts with source music in one of the five ways mentioned. Interchanging the two must be done seamlessly with utmost attention to detail so that the transfer from source music to score is not noticeable or distracting to the audience.

Another important musical element in films usually supervised by the music supervisor is the incorporation of songs where sung lyrical content enhances the meaning and experience of the film. According to Karlin and Wright, "a vocal will humanize the score, and give the soundtrack either wit...or warmth. The lyric can speak for the character...or reflect and overview of the film, and the right performance can give authenticity to a film's statement" (524). In order for a film to make use of songs, the film must leave a hole where the song will later be inserted and edited to fit, and there must be a reason why the song is included. Creating a score that directly interacts with songs also requires a great deal of skill by the composer, music editor and music supervisor.

A specific analysis of each film's music must be performed in order to properly examine and understand the music theory involved in film scoring. Such an endeavor is problematic because in comparison with more traditional forms of composition (such as the sonata form of the symphony or string quartet for example), relatively very little formal, objective musical study examines the compositional techniques of film scoring. Because no widespread agreement acknowledging an ideal format for the theoretical analysis of a film score exists, a project that seeks to do so faces a problem from the beginning. Without a lengthy examination of why this disparity between the amount of literature available on traditional forms and newer forms exists, understanding a few circumstances will broadly address the situation and help clarify this project's format for analysis.

First, the medium of film music in its present form has only existed for about 70 years. It was not until 1929 when technology allowed audio and visual streams to be recorded on to the same strip of film that our present medium of film music was born. Because of such a relatively young age in comparison with other classical forms that precede film music by hundreds of years, the simple time differential explains why so little examination of film music exists.

Secondly, in the musical world there seems to be a current of thought that does not hold film music with the same sort of regard that compositions generated from strictly musical considerations are held, the implication being that music so heavily influenced by extra-musical considerations is not as valid. This debate is part of a larger issue in musical circles about the nature of music where absolute music and program music are pitted against each other. Absolute music can be thought of as music for music's sake alone while program music is defined as music that depicts some extra-musical idea or story.

This discussion about these two seemingly opposed concepts of music is not new. The concept of program music comes from a movement during the 19^th century, when composers like Liszt, Mussorgsky, Borodin, Rimsky-Korsakov, Strauss, and others based their compositions on poetry, folklore, nationalistic mythology or other programs. The concept of absolute music implies a certain ideal -- that there is purity in the creation of music for music's sake alone. Though such aspirations are commendable, the observable history of music is that an idealistic approach to composition, as implied by the concept of absolute music, is rarely attained. Even among composers regarded as masters (Beethoven, Mozart, Bach, etc.) it is widely understood that certain musical features of their works were included or omitted because of extra-musical considerations. Many composers would attest that almost inevitably in the creation of a piece, the composer must make choices about what musical ideas to include and what to remove and that in reaching these decisions, non-musical considerations often affect the final form of the work. Such decisions about what music to remove or include are extraordinarily common and should not cause the music that benefits from such decisions to be regarded as less valid.

Regardless of the reasons for a lack of examples that analytically discuss film music in an academic fashion, this project required an analysis model for the purposes of clear identification of each film, for consistent examination of each film, for clear objective analysis, for specific reference to musical examples and observations, and to report findings in a systematic, logical format. The primary template for the formulation of this analysis model was developed by Fred Karlin for a section of his text, Listening to movies: the film lover's guide to film music. This section of text, identified as "A Closer Look at Eight Films," serves as a very basic model for analysis of a film score, especially if access to original manuscripts and scores is not available (92-144). This project makes use of Karlin's basic analysis model, as well as Karlin's format of identification.

Per Karlin, analysis of each film begins with an identification section that identifies each film with the following information in the format, which follows:

A thorough analysis should account for the creative climate during the time that a film was released, in so far that such information is directly related to the film's success and the film's music. Also per Karlin, the next analysis portion titled Introductory Comments will briefly discuss the history of the film to point out information about how the film was influenced by prevailing issues when it was made, or other such information that may directly or indirectly relate to the score's development.

The Synopsis section of each analysis will outline the plot, as well as discuss the assumptions each film makes about the nature of the universe, and how each film establishes its cinematic landscape.

Because of the fundamental importance that the score concept plays in the successfulness of a score, a thorough analysis of a film score should adequately account for the conceptual model from which the composer most likely worked. This can be difficult because without the benefit of a composer's own words and thoughts, it is impossible to state with great certainty what conceptual model he was working from. However, careful observation of the music's role in a film and an understanding of a film's overall conceptual and dramatic goals can be juxtaposed to create an observable interaction between certain musical and plot features from which we may infer certain concepts the composer may have been working from. On occasion music from a film will bear similarity to existing pieces, suggesting the use of a role model or a temp track in the scoring process. Per Karlin, this project records observations and insights about the nature of the score concept and any usage of role models and/or temp tracks in the section of the analysis titled "Style and Concept."

A thorough analysis should include an accurate list of all cues in a film, their timings and when the music enters so other viewers of the film can observe the cues. Such a detailed account of cues will also facilitate discussion of specific musical passages within the score itself. This project records a specific cue in the same manner as Karlin, listing cues in the section of analysis called "Spotting."

Because occasionally, films make use of songs and source music to various extents, the usage of each should be discussed in a thorough analysis of music's role in a film. While these musical elements in film are usually not considered part of the score, they often play influential roles in establishing the authenticity or character of film, and will be accounted for in a section called "Source Music and Songs."

Karlin also includes a section titled "Themes" which comments on specific recurring melodies throughout a picture. However, many scores included in this project do not directly use linear melodies and because the words "theme" and "melody" in non-musical (and some musical) circles are often interchangeable, this project will title this section "Compositional Techniques." Also unlike Karlin, this project will include musical transcriptions in this section in addition to commentary on specific musical selections. The format for these transcriptions and commentaries follows that of Doug Adams who in various articles appearing in issues of Film Score Monthly analyzed Franz Waxman's highly developed "leitmotif" score for Prince Valiant as well as John William's scores for the films of the Star Wars trilogy, citing numerous transcribed motives with commentary (28-29). Unfortunately, actual transcriptions of full scores are not always available, however occasionally cue, medley or sequence from a score is available and will appear in this section of analysis when available for the specific film.

For the purposes of objectively evaluating the successfulness of each score in the contexts of its own film, films similar in type, and all films included in this project, an evaluation tool is used. This tool is a set of questions posed to each film. The questions were derived from issues surrounding the evaluation of film music as suggested by Karlin, including how a score distinguishes itself, how a score makes use of established film music styles, the extent to which a score serves the purposes of a film, the extent to which the score interacts with the drama to elicits emotional involvement, the traditional structural concepts of form and development as they occur in film music and originality. The "Evaluation" section of each analysis is comprised of the answers of each film to the analysis tool, which follows:

1. What compositional elements distinguish this score?
2. What compositional elements are similar to other scores in this film genre? How frequently do these elements occur in the other selected films, scenes and scores?
3. To what extent does the score serve the film?
4. How is the level of emotional involvement between music and drama appropriate for the film?
5. How does the score form make use of the film form? To what extent is that appropriate for the film?
6. How is the level of score originality appropriate for the film?

The specific type of film this project examines is one that requires sophisticated scoring techniques because of the nature and characteristics of its plot. Since its inception, the film medium has allowed for a realization of fictional concepts and ideas and in doing so has sought to create alternate realities through the use of striking visual image and musical scoring. Kerry J. Byrnes recently cataloged many of these films along with critiques of scores from these films in an article title "Next Stop...Willoughby: Film Music Voyages in The Soundtrack Zone 1998" which appeared at www.filmscoremonthly.com, the outlet of the magazine Film Score Monthly. Byrnes groups films and television shows of this type into three categories: 1. Sojourn Across Space, 2. Sojourn Across Time and , 3. Sojourn Across Death. This project will address only films of the types, "Altered Space," "Altered Time," and "Altered Death," making similar use of Byrnes' categories for the sake of comparison and organization. The films selected all appeared in Byrnes' article and were chosen because of the quality of the film overall, the reputation and experience of the composer for the purposes of comparison, the film's historical significance, and access to the film itself as well as other media related to the picture such as recordings of the score and other available peripherally related materials. A brief discussion of observed characteristics and similarities between films of each type will open the section on each film group.

The term "space" should be defined for the context in which it was used to group these films. In this context, "space" is not just the popular setting of so many blockbuster pictures in outer space, but rather space in a more general sense as reality. Though three pictures from this group, Planet of the Apes, Superman: The Movie, and Contact involve characters who traverse across outer space, two films, Field of Dreams and The Matrix involve travel to and from strange spaces of existence. In Field of Dreams, the baseball players exist in the limited hallowed space of the baseball diamond, and the even more mysterious corn field; and in The Matrix, characters exist in two different realities simultaneously, one physical, the other, computer generated and neurologically projected. But all of the films' scores incorporate scoring techniques that prove very valuable in a study such as this.

Planet of the Apes (1968)

Music by Jerry Goldsmith

Orchestrated by Arthur Morton

Directed by Franklin J. Schaffner

Starring Charlton Heston, Roddy McDowell, Kim Hunter, Maurice Evans, James Whitmore, James Daly

Planet of the Apes spawned a number of sequel films, television episodes and specials, and a very definite following among science fiction fans. The release of Planet of the Apes coincided with the later half of the turbulent decade of the 1960's, which may account for much of the film's anti-war rhetoric.

It should be noted that the Goldsmith's approach to this score is very much an avant-garde method. While the music for the picture is extremely appropriate, specific detailed analysis simply by listening is extremely difficult and in some cases impossible, simply because of the newness, inventiveness and originality of Goldsmith's technique. Specific musical analysis for this picture represents the best estimations of the author, but this analysis is performed without the benefit of a score.

Planet of the Apes makes use of the concept of an altered reality made possible by travel through space for an extended period of time. Jerry Goldsmith's score combines with askew camera angles and with special visual effects to set the mood for this altered reality. The primary driving concept of the score is to make unconventional use of conventional instruments. One of the first sounds in cue #1. Main Title is the repetition of a single pitch on what is typically referred to as "prepared" piano. In this context, "prepared" simply means that the typical piano instrument has been altered to sound differently. Perhaps a muffler of some sort has been placed inside the piano to keep the strings from vibrating fully or properly in the normal sense, or perhaps the string itself is being plucked with a tool instead of being struck by a hammer in the conventional way. Almost every other instrument (with a few exceptions) heard in this cue is used in an unconventional way.

Another key concept in the score that contributes to the altered reality of the film is the single sounding note is repeated by convention and especially unconventional means by adding the audio effect of echo. Jerry Goldsmith also employed this technique of applying echo to trumpet passages in the film Patton during sequences when General Patton talks about how he was present at all of the ancient battles of history. In both contexts it suggests a reality that is altered or strangely recalls the past.

The score also makes use of a sparse atonal style that also acts as a vehicle to establish the altered reality of Planet of the Apes. Very quick iterations of tone rows can be heard throughout the film. When necessary, the score makes use of fast tempos for the purpose of underscoring the action on screen, but does not depart from an atonal stylistic approach.

A final element of the film that helps to create the relationship of the score to the picture occurs in the final minute of the film. The revelation of that minute is the most dramatic moment of the picture, and while there is no music, the strangeness of the score throughout the picture is justified because of what Taylor discovers. Essentially, what the score has been trying to tell Taylor and the audience all along is finally revealed.

Running time: 112 minutes

Running time of music: 46 minutes, 24 seconds

Percentage scored: 41%

#1. Main Title (2:09) Music begins as Taylor (Heston) enters deep sleep.

#2. Crash Landing (1:05) Begins during the landing sequence after the ship enters the water.

#3. Abandon Ship (1:30) Starts as the ships metal shrieks as the crew realizes Stewart is dead.

#4. "Here To Stay" (1:37) Follows Taylor's observation that the crew is marooned on the planet.

#5. Wasteland (2:27) Begins as crew begins wandering through the desert on foot.

#6. Searching For Life (4:27) After the crew finds a small plant, music begins as the crew searches for more signs of life.

#7. Others (3:03) Music starts as strange beings steal the crew's clothes.

#8. The Hunt (5:08) Begins as the apes begin to corral the herds of humans.

#9. A Present for Bright Eyes (0:48) Begins as Dr. Zira places Nova in the cage with Taylor.

#10. Disturbance in the Cage (1:24) Music starts as a man attacks Taylor in an outdoor cage.

#11. Trusting Dr. Zira (1:49) After returning inside, the music begins as Dr. Zira seeks to establish trust with Taylor.

#12. Escape attempt (5:35) Music starts as a guard attempts to harness Taylor.

#13. The Hearing (1:42) Starts as Taylor is escorted into the Tribunal courtroom.

#14. Examining the Crew (2:21) Begins as the Tribunal exits the courtroom to examine Taylor's companions.

#15. The Abduction (2:35) Begins as Lucious assaults a guard and frees Taylor.

#16. Return to the Forbidden Zone (3:18) Music starts as Taylor and party set out for the forbidden zone and ends as Taylor yells to Cornelius across a deep chasm.

#17. Standoff (1:05) Music begins as Cornelius and Taylor begin to enter the cave and troops begin to ambush the beach.

#18. The Cave (1:13) Begins as Taylor suggests that they all enter the cave to determine Cornelius' and Zira's fate and ends as the group enters the cave and has a look around.

#19. The Answer (3:08) Music begins as Taylor and Nova ride off to a new life and ends as Taylor finds that he has been on Earth the whole time.

With the exception of a blaring horn resembling a masculine scream at the begging of the hunt scene, there is no source music in the film to discuss. Songs are not used in this picture.

In #1. Main Title, the use of prepared piano can be observed. Without the actual instructions for its preparation and the directions to the performer, it is almost impossible to speculate the exact nature of how the instrument is altered.

Throughout the film, a repeated idea is the use of instruments repeating a single note many times, and also the repetition of some sort of tone row. Without an written example of the score, analysis of the row can be observed, but demonstration of recurrence and affectations of the row (inversion, retrograde, and retrograde inversion) are almost impossible.

The unconventional use of instruments, special application of electronic effects and atonal style clearly set this score apart from the majority of films that existed before this score was completed. In comparison with scores that followed, it set a new trend in the application of unconventional instrumentation and use of electronic effects.

As mentioned previously, Goldsmith applies similar electronic techniques in cues from the film Patton, but other than usage in that picture, such techniques were so unique at the time and so appropriately employed, that any other usage of similar instead would have been blatantly plagiarized from Goldsmith.

Among the score examined in this project, Planet of the Apes is the only score consistently atonal in style with such developed use of unconventional instruments.

In most cues, the score benefits from such refined craftsmanship, that the individual entrances and exits of cues are so subtle that even when consciously listening for these entrances and exists, it is difficult to exactly determine these moments. Such concentrated effort to make the score inconspicuous attests to

score's function of a supporting role.

The film primarily scientific and socio-philosophical in nature where two sides of an argument are pitted against each other. The main emotion that stems from the plot then is anger and when appropriate, the music underscores and reflects that tension. The small sub-plot of the relationship between Taylor and Dr. Zira is not explored very much in the film and consequently, there is not much space to underscore this relationship with music. It seems that an attempt to do so would distract and break the continuity of the score.

The form of the score closely follows the form of the film. From the opening crash scene, as the picture climaxes visually in the chase scenes, the music also expands its texture and tempo to support these moments.

The originality of the film's premise needed an adequately original score to successfully communicate issues the film deals with. Goldsmith's reality is equally as original as the originality of the film. Consequently, the score works with the film to establish a consistent believable reality.

Superman: The Movie (1978)

Music by John Williams

Orchestrated by Andrew Morton and Arthur Morton

Directed by Richard Donner

Starring Christopher Reeve, Marlon Brando, Gene Hackman, Margot Kidder, Ned Beatty

Dubbed "The Best Comic-Book Film Ever" by film music writer Jeff Bond in a recent edition of Film Score Monthly, the phenomenon of Superman: The Movie generated 3 sequels, of which, none compared in size, scope or quality to the first incarnation of the heroic character (27). According to Bond:

Superman eventually would gross $134 million in the United States which laid the groundwork for the sequels that followed, all of which included music from the original, but none of which were exclusively fully scored by Williams.

Superman is a leitmotif score. Not every character has their own theme, but there are enough themes stated so that for each scene that requires music, an appropriate leitmotif theme can be attached.

Williams' style for Superman is orchestrally romantic, incorporating according to Bond, "...the lush, soaring Max Steineresque [composer of Gone With the Wind] Hollywood love theme" (28). Drawing on the influences of Richard Strauss and Richard Wagner, most cues make use of fully orchestrated strings and brass. As each leitmotif theme returns, Williams uses the proper instrumentation to connote the appropriate mood for the specific scene. Williams' harmonic language is not as chromatic as romantic orchestral works and not as strenuous on the ear, but rightfully so because excessively chromatic music in the greater context of a film would distract from the plot and images on screen. Instead, Williams uses chromaticism as a tool to negotiate through a variety of tonal centers for the purposes of emphasizing thematic material as it returns throughout the film.

Total Picture Running Time: 143 minutes

Total Music Time: 86 minutes, 59 seconds

Percentage scored: 61%

#1. Prologue and Main Title (5:00) Music begins as the first scene opens with the drawing back of a curtain in black and white and ends as the opening credits end.

#2. The Planet Krypton (1:26) Begins in slight elision with the Main Title cue and ends as the camera zooms into the dome structure on the planet surface.

#3. The Criminals (3:24) Begins as Jor-El starts his description of Ursa and ends as the "Phantom Zone" flies away from the planet surface into space.

#4. Decision of the Council (1:24) Music enters as a key member of the council pronounces the council's decision as final and ends as the audience sees an interior view of Jor-El's home.

#5. Saying Goodbye (2:19) Begins as Jor-El lifts and places crystal into the space pod and ends with a shot of Krypton's approaching red sun.

#6. The Pod Leaves (0:23) Begins as the pod breaks through the glass ceiling of Jor-El's home and ends as a column of rock erupts through the floor of Jor-El's home.

#7. Destruction of Krypton and Space Travel (2:36) Begins with the massive explosion of Krypton and ends as the pod enters Earth's atmosphere.

#8. Meeting New Parents (0:30) Begins as Jonathan and Martha Kent realize there was a crash and ends as the two realize there is a child in the crater.

#9. First Impressions (0:16) Begins as little Kalel lifts up the truck and ends with a quick cut to the football field.

#10. Jogging Home (1:10) Begins as Clark punts a ball and ends as Clark darts over a hill.

#11. Talking with Dad (3:15) Music begins as Clark and Jonathan walk up the drive way and ends with the transition from the cemetery to Clark's bedroom.

#12. The Shard and Self-Discovery (13:29) Begins with the transition to Clark's Bedroom and continues until Superman leaves the fortress of solitude.

#13. Pulled into an Alley (1:33) Begins as a voice and a gun motion for Lois and Clark to come into an alley and ends as Lois picks up her purse as the two leave the alley.

#14. Meeting Otis (1:06) Begins as Otis walks down the sidewalk and ends Otis as blends into the crowd at the train station.

#15. Lex Luthor deals with the Police (1:01) Begins as a detective discovers the secret entrance to Luthor's hideout and ends as Luthor deals with the curious detective.

#16. First Night in Metropolis (7:59) Begins as the helicopter shuttling Lois to the airprt has trouble taking off and ends as a crowbar hammers Superman's shoulder.

#17. Cat in the Tree (0:43) Begins with a calm shot of Superman flying above the city and ends as the little girl walks back into her house.

#18. Air Force One (0:43) Music enters as Superman takes up position under the wing of the plane and ends as the pilot and crewman on the same side peer out the window.

#19. The Interview (1:22) Begins as Superman flies above the city and ends as Superman and Lois sit down for an interview.

#20. Flying Lesson (7:33) Begins as Superman admits that he likes the color pink and ends as Lois realizes that she has just given Superman his name.

#21. Tell her about Clark? (0:39) Begins as Clark removes his glasses to confide the truth in Lois and ends as the two leave Lois' apartment.

#22. The Convoy (1:40) Music enters with a shot of the convoy approaching the feigned accident and ends as Luthor and team pick up Otis and drive away in the pretend ambulance.

#23. Another Sabotage (1:21) Begins with a shot of the Navy missile convoy and ends as Miss Tessmacher accomplishes her task.

#24. Finding Luthor (2:10) Begins as Luthor broadcasts his high frequency message and ends as Superman makes his impression on Luthor's door.

#25. Target Zero (0:56) Begins as Luthor points out the precise missile target on his floor map and ends as the missiles rocket across the countries at low levels.

#26. Kryptonite (2:01) Begins as Superman opens the case containing the Krypton and ends as Superman struggles to get the Kryptonite chain off his neck while underwater.

#27. Chasing the Missile (3:04) Begins as Miss Tessmacher decides to help Superman and ends as Luthor realizes that Miss Tessmacher helped Superman.

#28. Saving California (0:50) Begins as a school bus teeters on the edge of the golden gate bridge and ends as the Hoover Dam begins to crack.

#29. Jimmy Olson and Hoover Dam (0:50) Music begins as Jimmy dangles on the ledge above the Hoover Dam and ends as the river flows through the collapsed dam.

#30. Lois and Diverting the River (4:59) Begins as a crack in the road threatens Lois' car and ends as Superman lays Lois' lifeless body on the ground.

#31. Interfering with Human History (1:59) Begins as in anger Superman flies into the sky and ends as he returns to her car after having changed the circumstances.

#32. Something I have to Do and End Credits (9:48) Begins as Lois and Superman lean together to kiss but are interrupted by Jimmy Olson and ends as the final credits finish rolling.

In three scenes Superman uses source music, but not for the purposes of advancing the plot. Instead of actively participating in moving the story along, the source music is passive in these scenes, Clark's jog home from school, Luau at Lex Luthor's hideout, and Lois' drive through the desert, helping make the scene theatrically convincing. The music in the first scene, the popular song "Rock Around the Clock" can be heard from Brad's car and last scene of the three, radio music comes from Lois' automobile. In the second of the three scenes, background Hawaiian music from a stereo or hi-fi system can be heard in the Luthor palace.

#1. Prologue and Main Title pronounces the grandiose, heroic "Main Theme," the basis of which is demonstrated by the melody notated in Figure 1.

The next recurring motive, "The Planet Krypton," is demonstrated in #2. The Planet Krypton and is identified with images or concepts surrounding Krypton and is shown in Figure 2. In cue #12. The Shard and Self-discovery this motive returns many times, in some cases in a minor mode.

The main motive used for the actual character of Superman, the "Superman Motive," is heard first in cue #6. The Pod Leaves, briefly referenced in #8. Meeting New Parents, stated fully at the close end of #12. The Shard and Self-Discovery, is repeated throughout the course of the film, and is notated as follows in Figure 3.

Another theme, the "Rural Theme," used in cue #11. Talking With Dad occurs during action that takes place in the setting of Superman's rural upbringing and is demonstrated in Figure 4.

A motive briefly used in #12. The Shard and Self-discovery is most closely associated with the shard because of its mysterious qualities and serves to reference mysterious reminders of Krypton. This motive is seen in Figure 5.

A final theme the score makes use of in #16. First Night in Metropolis and extensively in cue #20. Flying Lesson is the film's "Love Theme." Figure 6. notates the full realization of the theme in these cues, although a motive from the cue is first heard in cue #13. Pulled Into an Alley.

Evaluation

Williams superbly works within the construct of the leitmotif approach to scoring. With a thorough knowledge of the sounds a symphony orchestra is capable of producing, Williams tailors extremely appropriate instrumental passages throughout the score, but especially in cues #1. Prologue and Main Title, #13. The Shard and Self-Discovery, and #20. Flying Lesson. The variety with which Williams restates themes certainly distinguishes this score from leitmotif scores of others and his own.

While leitmotif scores have been present in the world of film music since its inception, few composers in recent years have used this approach as successfully as Williams. His scores throughout the late 19070's and early 1980's evidence his experience in using this approach to efficiently and successfully score a film and still meet the dramatic needs of each picture. Other Williams' scores that make use of the leitmotif approach include the Star Wars trilogy, the Indiana Jones trilogy, E.T.: The Extra-Terrestrial and others.

While audiences of the late 1970's and 1980's became very familiar with this sort of approach because of the popularity of these films, few other composers matched Williams' skill at using this technique of scoring. The result of the phenomena status to which some of Williams' scores rose is that while extremely appropriate for the films in which the leitmotif technique is used, the method is conceptually very predictable. Consequently, not many other films make use of this technique in spite of its effectiveness when employed properly.

Each restatement of a leitmotif is done to help characterize the image on screen with which it is identified. The film benefits greatly from Williams' understanding of how to read the drama to determine what its needs are and his ability to create the correspondingly appropriate musical material.

Because the human issues and relationships the film explores, the film lends itself to be scored in a style that can highlight the presence of those emotions. Immediately, the plot makes use of the circumstances in which Jor-El finds himself to generate drama. Quickly his relationship to Kal-El and his actions to save Kal-El create the foundation for the film at the very outset. The score interacts with these issues in an extremely active and significant way to magnify the on-screen drama. The first 24 minutes and 20 seconds of the film contain 17 minutes and 2 seconds worth of music, meaning that 70% of the time during those 24 minutes, the score is interacting with the drama. Later in the picture, the love interest between Superman and Lois is the primary vehicle for eliciting emotional involvement from the audience

The score mirrors the development of the picture. In keeping with the film's climax, the musical climax -- that is, one of the most musically complex cues -- occurs during the moment of Superman's strongest emotion. In this moment, Superman literally turns back time in order to alter the course of human events that leads to Lois' death. In the case of this film which makes use of very successful plot development and form, the approach of allowing the film form to dictate the score form works in favor of both the film and the score.

While Williams' style is not new in the world of film music, it certainly had not been done as well for a number of years. The successfulness with which Williams makes use of the leitmotif technique endows the score with a freshness that more than makes up for any perceived lack of originality. Indeed, as Jeff Bond mentions of the whole film, "It remains the yardstick against which all the comic book adaptations are measures, just as Williams' score represented the blue-print for all comic book film scores until Danny Elfman's [Bernard] Herrmannesque Batman arrived on the scene" (31).

Field of Dreams (1989)

Music by James Horner

Directed by Phil Alden Robinson

Starring Kevin Costner, Amy Madigan, James Earl Jones, Ray Liotta, Burt Lancaster

Set on a corn farm in Iowa, Field of Dreams is a tribute to baseball, to those who love the game, and to those whose lives are richer because of how the game brought them together.

After hearing a voice that said "If you build it, he will come" while working one day in the field, Ray Kinsella (Kevin Costner), an Iowa farmer, plows under his corn crop to build a baseball diamond for Shoeless Joe Jackson and other baseball players from the early 1900's. Thinking the voice has been appeased, life continues as normal until Ray Hears the voice again. Facing the prospect of losing his farm because he plowed under his major crop to build the field, Ray must decide what to do.

Horner's musical concept can be described as a straightforward use of simple themes and triadic harmonies in the fashion of Aaron Copland. This score however is somewhat unique in that the realization of this musical approach makes use of traditional orchestral instruments accented by synthetic timbres and sounds. The incorporation of these electronic instruments, chiefly in scenes where some unusual action that makes use of altered space takes place, enhances the mystery and quality of the story element that makes use of the altered space.

Total Picture Running Time: 106 minutes

Total Music Time: 53 minutes, 22 seconds

Percentage scored: 50%

#1. Main Title & Introduction (3:37) Begins with fade into titles and continues through the narrative preface and introduction.

#2. The Voice (1:58) Starts as camera sweeps across the corn field and live action begins with the whispery voice calling to Ray: "If you build it, he will come."

#3. Night Visit (0:39) Begins as the voice awakens Ray with its whispered call.

#4. Revelation of the Field (1:18) Music begins with a shot of Ray crouching in the field.

#5. Decision to build the Field (2:14) Starts as camera shifts from shot of the Moon to Ray and Annie's conversation in bed.

#6. Building the Field and Waiting (3:27) Music begins as Ray and Karen begin plowing under the corn.

#7. Shoeless Joe Appears (2:35) Begins as Karen reports to Ray that a man is outside on the lawn.

#8. Joe Reminisces (2:59) Begins after Joe takes batting practice and begins to remember playing.

#9. The Ball Game is On (1:59) Begins as the players Joe was suspended with visit the field for the first time.

#10. End of the Day and Return of the Voice (2:21) Music enters as Ray chats with ball players and ends as Ray leaves the field after another confusion message from the voice.

#11. Researching Terrance Mann (2:23) Begins as Annie asks Ray what Terrance man has to do with baseball and ends as the two walk into the house after returning from the library.

#12. Traveling to Boston (2:07) Begins as Annie and Ray realize they had the same dream and ends as Ray finds the staircase that leads to Mann's apartment.

#13. The Final Voice (1:55) Begins as Ray hears the voice and sees the scoreboard at Fenway Park change and ends as Terrance exits Ray's van.

#14. Terrance's Realization and Leaving (1:36) Begins as Terrance steps in front of Ray's van and ends as Terrance and Ray leave for Minnesota

#15. On The Highway (2:31) Begins as Ray and Terrance hit the highway and ends as Ray explains to Annie that he and Terrance are going to Minnesota.

#16. Moonlight Graham (0:45) Begins as Ray sees strange signs that the time has changed and ends as Ray and Doc Graham head for his office.

#17. Remembering harsh words (2:05) Begins as night settles and Terrance asks Ray what he said to his father and ends as Annie and ends as Karen and Annie run out to meet Ray.

#18. Archie up to bat (3:13) Begins as Joe tells Archie there is a place for him on the team and ends as Archie and Ray acknowledge each other.

#19. People will come (2:25) Begins as Terrance begins to explain why people will come and ends as Ray explains that he will not sell the farm.

#20. Emergency (2:13) Begins as Karen falls off of the back of the bleachers and ends as Doc Graham walks into the corn.

#21. The Place Where Dreams Come True (9:02) Begins as Terrance explains that his experience will make a great story and ends as the people come.

The score for Field of Dreams incorporates music that would seem like source music upon the first viewing of film. These cues are up-tempo, in a popular style, and occur during some sort of action to help bridge the scenes before and after the action sequences. This music is not actually source music however, as the music that occurs during these sequences does not appear to emanate from a source within the film.

Throughout Field of Dreams, the score uses a recurring theme heard in the voice of a french horn to accompany mysterious shots of baseball oriented moments. The nature of this theme is very solitary but with the accompaniment of electronic effects and sounds, the theme takes on a timeless quality. The melody is heard only in the horn with accompaniment of electronic effects, a sustained chord in the string section, and an strategically placed accentuations heard in the low register of the piano with select percussion instruments. Figure 7. shows the first eight bars of this baseball theme as heard in cue #1. Main Title and Introduction.

Another recurring motive serves as development material for individual cues throughout the score. This motive is made of two voices, the higher voice of which is an inversion of the lower voice, heard simultaneously at a fifth above the original. The character of the harmonies generated by these two voices in a subtle way helps identify the unusual nature of the space of the field and the story in general. This motive is demonstrated in Figure 8.

A third major compositional technique employed by Horner is the use of figures that outline a natural minor scale in the lower voice of a piano against the backdrop of a synthetically generated texture to help create the misty, evening sound of some of the scenes in the film. Figure 9. shows a transcription of the piano parts in these cues.

The score culminates in the juxtaposition of two of the previously mentioned compositional techniques. The baseball theme seen in Figure 7. and the and the unusual theme seen in Figure 8. are heard in the same cue and subsequently developed into the material that comprises cue #21. The Place Where Dreams Come True. The combination of these ideas for this cure works well because the development of these ideas culminates the direction of the score while the climax of the film is happens simultaneously on screen.

A last theme that occurs in the film is also heard in cue #21. The Place Where Dreams Come True. This theme is set in a minor mode which allows the theme to characterize the bittersweet nature of the relationship between Ray and his father, John. Though the theme is heard in places throughout the picture, Figure 10. Below notates this theme as heard played by an oboe, then later by a french horn in cue #21. The Place Where Dreams Come True.

Field of Dreams showcases Horner's feel for incorporating synthetic textures into traditional approaches to scoring for orchestra. While the thematic and harmonic material used for the bulk of the score is largely simple and accessible, the quality of Horner's incorporation of synthetic textures makes this score somewhat unique.

Though Horner is clearly one of the best film composers at incorporating electronic instruments into the score, clearly this technique alone used to musically characterize the altered space of a film is not a unique approach to achieving an appropriate characterization. Horner's simplistic style though does not overwhelm the picture. Rather, it leaves plenty of room for the film to take center stage and breathe.

Primarily, the score serves the film by drawing its approach to texture and instrumentation from the film. The orchestration for the large majority of the score appropriate for the on screen images. A place where there may be room for a different approach to instrumentation would be during the scenes that make use of the up-tempo, popular rock style of music as heard in cues #6. Building the Field and Waiting, #11. Researching Terrance Mann, and #15. On the Highway. But, these cues serve the film as well -- they represent the scores drastic stylistic adaptation when necessary for the action on screen.

The presence of the score at key dramatic moments during the film is very appropriate. The variety with which these moments are scored and left unscored is also satisfying as well. It would have been easy to over score the scene where Ray and Annie realize they had the same dream, but Horner's choice to simply score a sustained synthesizer at a very low volume appropriately interacts with the drama on screen.

As previously mentioned, the climaxes of the film and the score occur simultaneously in cue #21. The Place Where Dreams Come True. In this cue, thematic material from various cues earlier in the film come together to accentuate the interaction between Ray and his father. Through the rest of the film, various cues highlight the drama as necessary.

The concept of the score directly relates to the character of the film. Though the techniques Horner uses (incorporation of electronic instruments with traditional orchestra, and so on) to achieve a musical characterization for the film are not new, these same techniques have not been employed to the same level of effectiveness across a wide number of films. But simply the frequency with which this approach is used does not correlate directly to the originality of the film's plot. However, Horner's skill in the employment of these techniques allows the music to adequately match the needs of the picture.

Contact (1997)

Music by Alan Silvestri

Orchestrated by William Ross

Directed by Robert Zemeckis

Starring Jodie Foster, Matthew McConaughey, Tom Skerritt

Based on the work by astronomer and scientist Carl Sagan, the film version of Contact deals with the centuries-old issues between science and faith and how these issues interact when an alien intelligence in the universe makes itself know people on earth. An interesting side note to the picture is that director Robert Zemeckis makes use of special effects in Contact that originally were developed for use in the Oscar winning picture he also directed, Forrest Gump. In both films, this visual technique allows lead characters to appear in close proximity with important non-fictional figures that were not actually photographed during the principal photography of the film. In Forrest Gump, this special effect is used to place the lead actor Tom Hanks in interviews with past Presidents Johnson, Nixon and Ford and in this picture. In Contact, the technique places lead characters in close proximity to living officials such as President Bill Clinton.

Additionally, Contact's remarkable introduction also helps set director Robert Zemeckis apart from other film makers once again. As in Back to the Future, the opening sequence purposefully provides the audience with a huge amount of information pertinent to the plot of the film, however the audience has no way of knowing how that information will prove to be important at that time. It is not until later in the film, or even upon a second viewing, that the audience becomes aware of the significance of the material in the introduction.

Alan Silvestri's score could be considered the tasteful dramatic shading on a largely musically independent film. Though 42% of the film is accompanied by music, the large percentage of the time when the music accompanies the action, the music is not largely noticeable. Rather, more so than films to this point in the project, it's involvement in the film is limited to highlighting moments of dramatic importance. While a simple, childlike theme recurs throughout the course of the score, and also the occasional repetition of a swelling chord progression, the large body of music is underscoring and does not interact dramatically with the drama. His style is conventionally orchestral while making some extensive use of percussion in limited cues.

Total Picture Running Time: 150 minutes

Total Music Time: 62 minutes, 17 seconds

Percentage scored: 42%

#1. Introduction (1:48) Musical Collage begins immediately as film opens and ends as the camera passes a star and nebula on it's trek out from Earth.

#2. Pensacola (1:13) Begins as a young Ellie looks at the map of places she has reached and ends as Ellie asks if there would be big enough radio to reach to her Mom.

#3. A Bigger Antenna (1:41) Begins as Ellie begins searching on the radio late at night and ends as Ellie listens during her first night of dish time.

#4. The Planet Venus (1:31) Begins as Ellie explains when she knew she wanted to be an astronomer and ends as Palmer finishes a story.

#5. The Meteor Shower (1:09) Music enters as Ellie finds her father in an emergency and ends as the audience sees Ellie on the day of the funeral.

#6. Searching for Dad (0:52) Begins as Ellie walks up the stairs to the radio and ends as Ellie spends another night at the observatory.

#7. Ellie's Frustration (0:26) Begins as Ellie sits at the edge of a cliff after finding out that they will no longer have the funding they need and ends as a TV program featuring Palmer Joss begins.

#8. The Message (4:17) Begins as Ellie hears a strange signal and heads for the control room and ends as Willie patches in the signal to a speaker system.

#9. Tracking Vega (0:29) Begins as Ellie wraps up a conversation with an observatory in Australia and ends as Ellie makes the decision to go public with their findings.

#10. The Image From Vega (1:21) Begins as the scientists begin to decipher the image contained in the message and ends as the Kitz asks to be put in touch with the White House.

#11. The Data (0:40) Begins as Kent sends images of the data to Ellie and ends as Ellie begins to explain the nature of data to White House advisors.

#12. The Crowd (1:48) Musical montage begins as Ellie returns from the VLA from Washington and fades as Ellie sees a preacher lecturing outside the VLA.

#13. Hadden (6:44) Begins as Ellie boards Hadden's private jet and ends as Ellie explains the primer to White House officials.

#14. Meeting with Palmer (1:22) Begins as Ellie explains to Palmer why she personally wants to be the one to go and ends as the selecting committed wraps up their examination of Ellie.

#15. Palmer's Question (1:09) Begins as the importance of Palmer's question begins to sink in and ends as Palmer comes to console Ellie.

#16. The Machine (1:22) Music enters as Ellie gives the compass back to Palmer and ends as a reporter explains the situation at Cape Kennedy.

#17. Testing the Machine (4:14) Begins as the testing process begins and ends with the explosion during the test procedure.

#18. Systems Integration Site (2:41) Begins as Ellie presses a button to initiate a call to Mr. Hadden and ends as Hadden asks Ellie if she wants to take a ride.

#19. Ellie Prepares (0:43) Music enters as Palmer returns the compass to Ellie and ends as a jet flies Ellie out to the machine for the trip.

#20. Buttoning Up The IPV (1:11) Music begins as control notifies Ellie that they are going to close the pod and ends as the pod door seals itself.

#21. OK to Go (4:49) Begins as Kent lets Ellie know that he is there and ends as the gantry arm drops the pod into the core.

#22. Arrival (7:32) Begins as light within the pod goes out and Ellie realizes that she has arrived and ends as Ellie's travel back to Earth begins.

#23. The Facts Mount (1:02) Begins as control notifies Ellie that there was some mistake and ends as Ellie admits that she has no explanation for what happened.

#24. Not Alone (2:26) Music begins as Ellie emerges from the hearing to find Palmer and a throng have appeared in her support and ends as Ellie Mr. Kitz and ...Ms. Constantine discuss Ellie's Fate.

#25. A Big Place (9:47) Begins as Ellie explains the size of the universe to a group of kids and ends as the closing credits end.

While songs comprise the musical accompaniment for the montage of crazy demonstrators that greets Dr. Arraway in cue #12. The Crowd, because the evident purposefulness of song choice, order, and placement, the music obviously serves an active role, helping the plot proceed in a significant way. Because these songs function so actively, this sequence has been designated as an actual cue for the purposes of this analysis. Throughout selected films directed by Robert Zemeckis, such as Back to the Future and Forrest Gump for example, he has demonstrated a propensity to incorporate songs at strategic moments in his films for the purposes of advancing the plot.

Apart from this sequence, other source music includes a string quartet heard at the Ellie, Palmer and Drumlin all attend.

The first musical signature Silvestri uses throughout the picture is a single recurring theme. This theme captures the innocence of the young Ellie and simplicity of the drive and scientific curiosity that motivates Ellie through the whole film. Figure 11. As follows notates this theme as first heard in the voice of a piano in cue #2. Pensacola.

Throughout the picture, another theme recurs at various moments when Ellie specifically demonstrates her own scientific curiosity. This theme is based on a simple motive that occurs quickly, but in a manner that like the main theme, characterizes the purity and simplicity of the spark of wonder it represents. When heard in #3. A Bigger Antenna, a piccolo plays this theme as transcribed as follows in Figure 12.

Silvestri employs a third musical figure that recurs during moments of Ellie's emotional contact with other characters. This figure is simply a sequence of four chords, heard most often in an orchestrated string section. Though the entire section plays this progression, the attacks and general interpretation are noticeably very gentle, drawing its interpretation from the tender moments that occur in the action.

While Silvestri's conceptual approach is very conventional -- that is, the use of a main recurring theme, which is then further developed by similar, closely related motives -- Silvestri's skill at employing this tried and true scoring model is exemplary.

Like other films in this genre, Silvestri makes use of a familiar harmonic language. Silvestri's also demonstrates a talent incumbent upon a film composer: the ability to use music to characterize emotional moments and non-musical elements of drama and plot.

Though Silvestri could easily have made the more than 60 minutes of music he composed for this picture more noticeable, Silvestri's skill at using silence, as well as music that does not call attention to itself highlights a cinematic characteristic the plot makes use of and that is the characteristic of silence. Indeed, the picture is based on the literal and metaphorical silence that Ellie observes from the universe and the corresponding relative silence, subtlety and inconspicuousness of the score help communicate this element of the picture.

Though the spiritual component of Ellie's character are somewhat detached from her active, operative philosophy, the moments when she exhibits an emotional dimension are appropriately scored with tender, delicate figures.

As the intensity of the drama builds, the score corresponds in like manner, highlighting the development of the plot and accentuating the important scenes with more significant figures of music.

While the subject for the film, the hope of intelligent life in the universe, is not incredibly original, especially in Hollywood, the detailed, scientific manner in which Contact deals with this subject is an extremely realistic approach that logically deals with fictional elements inherent in the subject. And while a correspondingly original conceptual approach to scoring such a picture is desirable, one cannot deny the appropriateness of Silvestri's approach and final product when viewing Contact.

The Matrix (1999)

Music by Don Davis

Directed by Andy and Larry Wachowski

Starring Keanu Reeves, Laurence Fishburn, Carrie-Anne Moss

Already famous for its Oscar-winning visual effects, The Matrix also captured an Oscar for sound effects editing, and though Don Davis' score for The Matrix was not nominated for an Oscar, the quality of the score shows that Don Davis will be a notable film composer in years to come.

Fortunately the public release of The Matrix on DVD format includes a special feature that allows the film to be viewed with a lower volume of dialogue and sound effects and a raised volume of the musical score with commentary by the composer, Don Davis. Such a feature makes this particular version of the film invaluable for a student of film music. Not only is the quality of the film and audio increased dramatically because of the technology of the DVD format, but to hear the composer's motivations and intentions in a play-by-play manner allows students of film music the incredible experience of first-hand conversation with the composer about his own compositions.

The style of Don Davis' score for The Matrix can best be described as a synthesis of 20^th century compositional ideas including minimalism, the avante garde school of the 1950's and 60's, as well as texture driven sequences, all realized by a full orchestra. Davis classifies his approach as a "post-modern style" which he characterizes as "an outgrowth of minimalism." Though not at length, Davis describes this "post-modern style" as "all-encompassing" and related to more abstract music. Davis also specifically mentions compositional concepts of Penderecki, in which a musical idea repeats itself in different ways. Such an approach can be heard in throughout the film, but Davis mentions that he specifically used this technique in cue #5. Unable to Speak.

Davis also alludes to the collaborative element of composing for films when discussing the composition of cue #6. Getting the Bug Out. Originally, Davis presented a "first draft" of music he had prepared for this cue, but the directors, the Wachowski Brothers, felt that it needed "less motion" at the beginning. The music that eventually made the film is observably static, similar to the texture of a churning sort of undercurrent that though it has motion, is not overtly present in the context of the film. This sequence according to Davis embodies the collaborative nature of the scoring process in that the music is the result of a compromise of creative considerations.

Additionally, Davis comments on the deliberate use of choir in sequences in cue #7. Morpheus' Proposal and #8. Neo's Rehab to personify the "fate of humanity" as the film presents that fate. Davis' choral technique involves current trends in choral writing similar to his overall approach to scoring for the orchestra, where the musical material is propelled primarily by textural considerations rather than traditional melodic and harmonic considerations.

A final concept from the film that Davis makes use of is the deliberate use of mirror imagery throughout the film. Davis discusses the feeling of the Wachowski Brothers that a mirror helped symbolize the nature of how film characters perceive reality -- that is, the belief that reality is really how we perceive it. Davis draws on the concept frequently for thematic material. In many cues, such as #4. Package for Mr. Anderson, as one musical idea enters, it is repeated, like a mirror image. Davis however takes the concept one step further by altering the way the idea is repeated, which suggests that somehow the repetition is not the same as the original.

Total Picture Running Time: 136 minutes

Total Music Time: 50 minutes, 38 seconds

Percentage scored: 37%

#1. Introduction (6:37) Begins with the opening sequence and continues through the first shot time the audience sees Neo.

#2. Computer Message (0:26) This cue begins as Neo wakes up to see that he has a message on his computer and ends as a knock on the door is heard as predicted by the message on the computer.

#3. Follow the White Rabbit (0:10) Begins as Neo realizes he should follow the instructions from the message on the computer and follow the girl at the door who has displayed the white rabbit tattoo on her back.

#4. Package for Mr. Anderson (4:03) Begins as Neo opens a strange package to find a ringing phone and ends as the audience sees Agents entering an interrogation room.

#5. Unable to Speak (1:07) Begins as Neo asks for his phone call, and Agent Smith comments that a phone call is useless if he is Unable to speak. The cue ends as Neo wakes up in his own apartment after some time has passed.

#6. Getting the Bug Out (3:09) Begins as the audience sees Neo waiting beneath a bridge in the rain and ends as Neo meets Morpheus.

#7. Morpheus' Proposal (7:29) Begins as Morpheus gives Neo the choice between the blue pill and the red pill and ends after Neo's discovery, as a crane raises Neo into Morpehus' ship, "The Nebachudnezzar."

#8. Neo's Rehab (1:59) Begins as a flash of light indicates Neo's awakening and ends as Morpheus enters Neo's room to find him curious and full of questions.

#9. The Nebachudnezzar and Crew (1:33) Begins as Morpheus begins the grand tour of the ship and ends as Morpheus and Neo enter the "construct."

#10. The Real World (3:53) The music enters as Morpheus catches Neo up on how history in the real world has developed and ends as Neo "pops."

#11. The Search is over (1:30) Begins as Morpheus explains why he freed Neo and ends as Morpheus explains that Neo will need his rest.

#12. Training Begins (3:48) Music enters as Tank hops into the operator chair and Neo begins his training, then ends as Morpheus and Neo begin a sparring program.

#13. Neo's Speed (0:57) Begins during the Kung Fu sequence as Neo begins to demonstrate his speed and ends as Morpheus is nearly nailed.

#14. The Jump Program (1:22) Begins as the Jump program is loaded and ends when Neo hits bottom.

#15. A Gift from Trinity (0:33) Music starts Trinity enters Neo's room, bringing in food and ends as Trinity and Cypher end their discussion.

#16. The Agent Program (4:36) Begins as Morpheus and Neo take a walk in what appears to be the real world and ends as a would be attack on The Nebachudnezzar is averted.

#17. Cypher's Perspective (0:55) Begins as Neo and Cypher poses a question to Neo while they share a drink and ends as Neo leaves Cypher alone.

#18. Cypher Deals (0:29) Begins as Cypher and the agent discuss terms of a deal and ends as the audience sees the rest of the crew at a yummy breakfast.

#19. Pirating In (0:48) Begins Morpheus informs the crew that they are going in and ends as Morpheus informs the operator that everyone is in.

#20. Residual Memories (2:54) Music begins as the squad exits a building into an alley and ends as Neo opens the door to the Oracle's apartment.

#21. There is no spoon (1:00) Begins as Neo observes a child performing mind exercises and ends as Neo is notified that the Oracle will see him.

#22. The Oracle (1:20) Begins as the Oracle begins to tell Neo about the truth of Morpheus and ends as Neo's visit winds down to a close.

#23. A Glitch (8:51) Begins as the audience sees mouse with a picture of the woman in the red dress ans ends as Neo realizes the phone is dead.

#24. Unplugged (4:39) Begins as the audience sees that Cypher has done in Dozer and ends as Agent smith begins to describe his perspective on The Matrix.

#25. Holding Morpheus (6:59) Begins as the audience sees the Agents' tools of torture and ends as Agent Smith pulls up a chair for a chat with Morpheus.

#26. Going After Morpheus (3:53) Begins as Agent Smith leans in to tell Morpheus how he has classified humans and ends as Neo reveals to the officer that he is packing heat.

#27. The Lobby (1:49) Begins as Neo and Trinity run to each wall in the lobby and ends as Neo finishes off the last soldier.

#28. The Bomb (0:58) Begins as the other agents enter Morpheus' holding room and ends as Neo and Trinity take a ride on the elevator wire.

#29. Under Attack (1:02) Begins as a helicopter pilot informs the agents that the crew on the roof is under attack and ends as Trinity says, "Dodge this."

#30. The Helicopter (0:37) Begins as Neo asks if Trinity can fly the helicopter and ends as Neo opens fire on the agents.

#31. The Rescue (4:12) Music enters as the audience sees Morpheus alone in the room and ends as Agent Smith comments, "They're not out yet."

#32. The Subway (5:31) Begins as Agent smith realizes that the bum in the subway station sees Neo and Trinity and ends as Neo runs out of the subway station.

#33. Agent Chase (3:46) Begins as a monitor on The Nebachudnezzar warns that sentinels are approaching and ends as Neo runs into a waiting Agent.

#34. The One (6:05) Begins Agent smith continues to shoot Neo and ends as Neo hangs up the phone.

#35. Closing Songs (5:43) Begins as Neo hangs up the phone and end as songs run out during the end credits.

#36. End Credits (0:38) Begins where songs run out and ends as the end credits finish rolling.

The Matrix deliberately uses songs throughout for two purposes. In some cases, music helps create the noir sub-culture environment in which the film is set. In other places, the music sets the attitude for a cue and actually underscores the images. The listing that follows cites the songs that actually occur in the film or credits, rather than those that only appear on the soundtrack, along with the artists who recorded them for The Matrix, and the scene in which each occurs.

As previously mentioned, Davis makes use of a variety of 20^th century compositional techniques. From a historical perspective, the earliest of these techniques would be Davis' occasionally polychordal harmonic language. According to Davis, in cue #29. Under Attack for example, his approach to scoring the brass parts was to "experiment" by giving different brass sections different chords, and to letting each section vary their volume so that as one chord entered, the other would exit, and vice versa. Another example of this technique is heard at the outset of the film, in cue #1. Introduction and could appear on a score as follows in Figure 13.

Another 20^th century technique is Davis' approach to writing for strings. Borrowed from the avante garde school, this approach makes heavy use of sul ponticello (playing very close to the bridge) markings creates a nasal, brittle effect, along with slides and other devices create the eerie effects of certain cues.

Concepts of minimalistic composition evidence themselves in #14. The Jump Program and #29. Under Attack where chords voiced throughout the orchestra are repeated in quick succession in a manner similar to John Adams' minimalistic work, Short Ride in a Fast Machine.

Davis' skill at combining so many different developments of composition from the 20^th century (such as string techniques and concepts of the avante garde school, texturally driven passages, polychordal harmonic language, use of electronic instruments, and so on) into a cohesive unit with a great deal of continuity, along with brilliant interaction between score and songs, all combine to make The Matrix one of the most distinguishing scores of late.

While other similar films from the 1990's and earlier made use of electronic instruments, few combined electronic and acoustic orchestral textures as well as The Matrix. While string techniques such as those explored by Davis in this score have been used in similar films before, probably the last score to use these approaches so successfully was James Horner's score for Star Trek II: The Wrath of Kahn (1982). Because these techniques are difficult to grasp from a compositional standpoint, they are not frequently employed.

Davis' score completes The Matrix in a way most composers would not have been able to accomplish. A simply good score would have demanded tremendous compositional facility in a variety of mediums from orchestral to electronic. The extent of Davis' grasp of these and other forms is obvious. Davis comments that from the beginning of his talks with the Wachowski Brothers, what the film needed was a score just as new and inventive as the visual images developed and captured for The Matrix. For those who enjoy

In scenes where the drama highlights Neo's confusion, such as in cue #7. Morpheus' Proposal in which Neo awakens, the score is present, functioning in a very active role to contribute to the feeling of disorientation. Throughout the film, the score takes on a variety of colors and textures to actively communicate mood and setting to the audience in appropriate manners.

During the climax of the film, when Neo realizes that he is "The One," cue #34. The One incorporates full brass voicing as well as the biggest compliment of voices to generate its own climax. Until that point, other cues shadow the dramatic contour of the film as the plot unfolds with a gradually increasing interest.

Davis' originality is extremely appropriate for The Matrix. As the film deals with issues of reality and technology, Davis' score is right there using combinations of techniques to generate a style of merged acoustic and electronic timbres that wonderfully compliment the film overall.

With just one exception, the films in this section all alter time in the most common, traditional sense (in so far as altered time is traditional) -- that is, the old tried and true method of time travel where because of theoretical ideas not really understood or proven in reality, the technology of a machine is used by the protagonist for a journey to a time in the past or the future. The only exception to this plot occurs in Somewhere in Time, where the protagonist, Richard (Christopher Reeve), travels across time by the power of suggestion. In the case of this picture, the film actually benefits from the lack of a machine and the technological issues that would tie up at least a part of the film. By avoiding that particular method of time travel, Somewhere in Time maintains the romantic aura that in part makes the film so successful.

An almost overdone characteristic of films in this category is the predictable significance of a clock within each plot. With the exception of The Terminator, each film makes use of this symbolic device at some point during the film, some more heavily than others.

The Time Machine (1960)

Music by Russell Garcia

Directed by George Pal

Starring Rod Taylor, Alan Young, Yvette Mimieux

While Russell Garcia is now known as a relatively obscure film composer, his work on The Time Machine proved to be a significant contribution to the world of film music will be noted because of the stature of the film The Time Machine has become. If for no other reason than the subject matter it addresses, The Time Machine has become a reference for other films that seek to make use of a time travel plot.

Russell Garcia's conceptual approach to scoring The Time Machine is very conventional. Making use of standard orchestral techniques, the model for The Time Machine score is a basic thematic representation of the most influential characters and objects. Though not truly a leitmotif score because the themes used are used in an extremely strict fashion, and because these the themes are not thoroughly developed, the Garcia makes use of the associative power of recurring themes that the leitmotif approach is famous for exploiting.

Total Picture Running Time: 103 minutes

Total Music Time: 49 minutes, 32 seconds

Percentage scored: 48%

#1. Introduction (0:21) Begins with the opening studio logo and ends as clocks of various sorts and sizes traverse the screen as a prelude to the film.

#2. Main Title and Gathering of Dinner Guests (2:08) Begins with the opening film title and ends as Filby is seated with the other guests waiting for their host.

#3. George Arrives (0:16) Begins as Mrs. Watson opens the door to see a haggard George at the door and ends as George is seated at the table with his dinner guests.

#4. The Story Begins (0:28) Music enters as George begins his story and ends as the first part of the story, the flashback to the invention of his prototype machine.

#5. Prototype Machine Revealed (0:58) Begins as George asserts the possibility of movement within the fourth dimension and ends as George asserts that the miniature device he has revealed is actually a real time machine.

#6. The Experiment Begins (0:50) Music enters a George begins to reach for the activation lever inside and ends as the prototype machine disappears.

#7. Frustration and Finding Filby (0:49) Music begins as George retires inside after a few guests have left and ends as he finds that one guest remains.

#8. Saying Goodbye to Filby (2:28) Music begins as Filby looks over to see the empty box that contained the prototype machine and ends as Mrs. Mrs. Watchett talks with George.

#9. The Machine (1:55) Music enters as George enters his lab and the machine is revealed and ends as George pauses to begin his journey.

#10. The Journey Begins (0:18) Music enters as George pushes the lever forward and ends as George pulls the lever back.

#11. The Journey Resumes (2:55) Begins as George looks around to see how the time progresses and ends George stops his travel to investigate why there was no light in his laboratory.

#13. Stop in 1917 (1:05) Begins as George emerges from his dilapidated house to explore the year and ends as George recognizes a familiar face.

#14. Conversation with Filby and Pressing On (3:32) Begins as James Filby tells George of Filby's death and ends as George pushes the lever forward once again.

#15. Resuming travel after Another War (1:00) Begins as George resumes time travel after realizing that the war he observed in 1940 was a new war and ends as he stops to investigate a peculiar screeching.

#16. Enclosed for centuries (1:51) Begins as George speeds away from the explosions and ends George stops his machine very quickly.

#17. Strange Time (2:52) Begins as George leaves his machine to wonder about and ends George enters the great hall of the Eloi.

#18. Anybody Here? (1:27) Begins as George emerges from the great hall to continue his search for humans and ends as George stops running through the jungle to hear people recreating.

#19. Rescue (1:40) Begins as a young girl swimming in the river screams and ends as the girl and the others all inexplicably leave George.

#20. Weena (1:47) Begins a Weena sits to begin a chat with George and ends as the two enter the great hall for a meal.

#21. Mysterious Tracks (3:05) Begins as George returns to his machine in the dark and ends as George finds Weena waiting for George in the bushes.

#22. Setting Up Camp (1:40) Begins as George explains his origins to Weena and ends as George likens pulls Weena's hand from the fire.

#23. Fireside with Weena (2:22) Begins as George explains that he has no right to be angry with her people and ends as George discovers an entrance to the underground caverns the next morning.

#24. The Moorlock Cavern (8:39) Begins as George discovers the nature of the relationship between the Eloi and the Moorlocks and ends as the cavern explodes and collapses.

#25. A Way Home (3:07) Music enters as George begins to show Weena how her hair would be held up if she lived in his time and ends as George escapes the Moorlocks realizes that he has been traveling through time the wrong way.

#26. A New World (1:59) Begins as Filby explains the scratches on the floor and why George left and ends as the final title fades.

Music in The Time Machine is strictly limited to that which was composed for the film. Because the film is set around the turn of the 20^th Century, some of the technologies that allow for source music in films (radios, stereos, etc.) were not invented yet. Though the phonograph and certainly orchestras and bands were around at the time, because of the relatively brief duration of action limited to George's house, the lead characters do not interact with live instruments that would necessitate the presence of source music or songs.

The first recurring theme heard in a variation at the outset of the film and adapted in various forms and lengths throughout the picture. This is the main theme, which in a romantic orchestral style characterizes the drama of George's story as well as romanticizes the adventurous idea of time travel. Figure 14. notates the full version of this theme as it occurs in cue #2. Main Title and Dinner Guests.

Another theme helps draws on the melodic and orchestral style of English composer Ralph Vaughan Williams to help establish the setting, and also characterize George's confidant and friend, David Filby. Played by the oboe in the later portion of cue #2. Main Title and Dinner Guests, this English theme is set in the Dorian mode and has two parts. Part A is soft, lyrical, and subtle and seen in Figure 15a.

The second portion of this them is a bit more dramatic, calling on the first violins and expanding the range of its melody to a full octave to express itself. Figure 15b notates this second portion of the English theme.

As George begins the flashback, which facilitates the telling of his story within the greater story of the film, a motive that suggests an altering of time is occurring is heard. This time motive cues the audience throughout the film of alterations of time the normal sense. The time motive implies a whole-tone scale though it is only comprised of three notes repeated in sequence several times and sustained across several measures as demonstrated in Figure 16.

A final convention used by Garcia during the sequences where George actually travels through time is an unconventional articulation of a traditional instrument. During these sequences such as in cue #10. The Journey Begins flutes can be heard playing repeated chromatic scales using what is called a flutter-tongue technique. Figure 17 as follows demonstrates a possible notation for these passages.

Evaluation

While the conceptual approach of using multiple themes, in essence a less complex leitmotif approach, is not new, for a relatively obscure composer, Garcia's musical figures are particularly appropriate for the needs of the film. The main theme for The Time Machine is somewhat conventional, and though some of Garcia's musical characterizations are predictable, and if used today would seem somewhat cliché, for the time in which the film was released, these figures were perfectly acceptable and adequate for achieving the desired characterization.

As previously mentioned, some of Garcia's techniques, such as the use of a whole-tone vocabulary and a very romantic main theme, would most likely not be used as frequently in a film that were produced today.

A primary way the score serves the film is by adding an element of romance and exoticism in the form of the main theme. The main theme captures not just the adventurous, idealistic spirit of George, but also his relationship to Weena. Additionally, the score, more than most, adds excitement and in places interest to what otherwise would by today's standards seem a feeble realization of this novel in terms of its special effects.

Garcia's score adds more to the romance of the picture than it needed to be an adequate score, but the film is better because of Garcia's music. Each return of material from the main theme enhances the audience's perception of the drama on screen, as it should. The recurrence of other themes guides the emotional response of the audience as well. For example, in the scene where George stops in 1917 and confuses David Filby and James Filby, the entrance of the second part of the English theme instead of merely characterizing Filby now serves as a gentle reminder of the man and his character.

Aside from a somewhat strict recurrence of thematic material that directly corresponds to the recurrence of certain images on screen, or certain plot sequences, the score does not strongly demonstrate a broader form, such as a different approach to scoring the scenes that occur in the future. But perhaps this approach was employed deliberately in order to maintain continuity through the picture.

The subject of time travel has obviously been a topic of discussion and film exploration for a number of years, thus i